The combo post game.

[Jon.]

^ Finer, L. B.; Frohwirth, L. F.; Dauphinee, L. A.; Singh, S.; Moore, A. M. (2005). "Reasons U.S. Women Have Abortions: Quantitative and Qualitative Perspectives". Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 37 (3): 110–118. doi:10.1111/j.1931-2393.2005.tb00045.x. PMID 16150658.
^ Jones, R. K.; Darroch, J. E.; Henshaw, S. K. (2002). "Contraceptive Use Among U.S. Women Having Abortions in 2000–2001" (PDF). Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 34 (6): 294–303. doi:10.2307/3097748. PMID 12558092.
^ Susan A. Cohen: Abortion and Women of Color: The Bigger Picture, Guttmacher Policy Review, Summer 2008, Volume 11, Number 3.
^ a b c d e f g h i Joffe, Carole (2009). "1. Abortion and medicine: A sociopolitical history". In MPaul, ES Lichtenberg, L Borgatta, DA Grimes, PG Stubblefield, MD Creinin (PDF). Management of Unintended and Abnormal Pregnancy (1st ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. ISBN 978-1-4443-1293-5. Archived from the original on 21 October 2011.
^ Miles, Steven (2005). The Hippocratic Oath and the Ethics of Medicine. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518820-2.
^ Carrick, Paul (2001). Medical Ethics in the Ancient World. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-0-87840-849-8.
^ Rackham, H. (1944). "Aristotle, Politics". Harvard University Press. Retrieved 2011-06-21.
^ Brind'Amour, Katherine (2007). "Effraenatam". Embryo Project Encyclopedia. Arizona State University. Archived from the original on 1 February 2012.
^ "Religions – Islam: Abortion". BBC. Retrieved 2011-12-10.
^ Dabash, Rasha; Roudi-Fahimi, Farzaneh (2008). "Abortion in the Middle East and North Africa" (PDF). Population Research Bureau. Archived from the original on 8 July 2011.
^ "Abortion Law, History & Religion". Childbirth By Choice Trust. Archived from the original on 8 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
^ For sources describing abortion policy in Nazi Germany, see:
Friedlander, Henry (1995). The origins of Nazi genocide: from euthanasia to the final solution. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-8078-4675-9. OCLC 60191622.
Proctor, Robert (1988). Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 122, 123 and 366. ISBN 978-0-674-74578-0. OCLC 20760638.
Arnot, Margaret L.; Cornelie Usborne (1999). Gender and Crime in Modern Europe. New York: Routledge. p. 231. ISBN 978-1-85728-745-5. OCLC 186748539.
DiMeglio, Peter M. (1999). "Germany 1933–1945 (National Socialism)". In Helen Tierney. Women's studies encyclopedia. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 589. ISBN 978-0-313-31072-0. OCLC 38504469.
^ http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/2011abortion/2011wallchart.pdf
^ World Abortion Policies 2007, United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division.
^ Theodore J. Joyce, Stanley K. Henshaw, Amanda Dennis, Lawrence B. Finer and Kelly Blanchard (April 2009). "The Impact of State Mandatory Counseling and Waiting Period Laws on Abortion: A Literature Review" (PDF). Guttmacher Institute. Archived from the original on 14 January 2011. Retrieved 31 December 2010.
^ "European delegation visits Nicaragua to examine effects of abortion ban". Ipas. 26 November 2007. Archived from the original on 17 April 2008. Retrieved 2009-06-15. "More than 82 maternal deaths had been registered in Nicaragua since the change. During this same period, indirect obstetric deaths, or deaths caused by illnesses aggravated by the normal effects of pregnancy and not due to direct obstetric causes, have doubled."
^ "Nicaragua: "The Women's Movement Is in Opposition"". IPS. Montevideo: Inside Costa Rica. 28 June 2008.
^ "Surgical Abortion: History and Overview". National Abortion Federation. Archived from the original on 22 September 2006. Retrieved 2006-09-04.
^ Nations MK, Misago C, Fonseca W, Correia LL, Campbell OM. (1997-06). "Women's hidden transcripts about abortion in Brazil". Soc Sci Med 44 (12): 1833–45. PMID 9194245. Retrieved 2012-12-17. "Two folk medical conditions, "delayed" (atrasada) and "suspended" (suspendida) menstruation, are described as perceived by poor Brazilian women in Northeast Brazil. Culturally prescribed methods to "regulate" these conditions and provoke menstrual bleeding are also described ..."
^ Henshaw, S. K. (1991). "The Accessibility of Abortion Services in the United States". Family Planning Perspectives 23 (6): 246–263. doi:10.2307/2135775.
^ Marcy Bloom (25 February 2008). "Need Abortion, Will Travel". RH Reality Check. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
^ Ross, Jen (12 September 2006). "In Chile, free morning-after pills to teens". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2006-12-07.
^ Gallardoi, Eduardo (26 September 2006). "Morning-After Pill Causes Furor in Chile". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2006-12-07.
^ Banister, Judith. (16 March 1999). Son Preference in Asia – Report of a Symposium. Retrieved 2006-01-12.
^ Reaney, Patricia. "Selective abortion blamed for India's missing girls". Reuters. Archived from the original on 20 February 2006. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
^ Sudha, S.; Rajan, S. Irudaya (July 1999). "Female Demographic Disadvantage in India 1981–1991: Sex Selective Abortions and Female Infanticide". Development and Change 30 (3): 585–618. doi:10.1111/1467-7660.00130. PMID 20162850. Archived from the original on 1 January 2003. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
^ "Sex Selection & Abortion: India". Library of Congress. 4 April 2011. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
^ "China Bans Sex-selection Abortion." (22 March 2002). Xinhua News Agency.'.' Retrieved 2006-01-12.
^ Graham, Maureen J.; Larsen; Xu (June 1998). "Son Preference in Anhui Province, China". International Family Planning Perspectives 24 (2): 72–77. doi:10.2307/2991929. Archived from the original on 21 October 2011.
^ a b "Preventing gender-biased sex selection". UNFPA. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
^ "Prenatal sex selection". PACE. Retrieved 27 April November 2012.
^ Smith, G. Davidson (Tim) (1998). "Single Issue Terrorism Commentary". Canadian Security Intelligence Service. Archived from the original on 15 October 2007. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
^ Wilson, M.; Lynxwiler, J. (1988). "Abortion clinic violence as terrorism". Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 11 (4): 263–273. doi:10.1080/10576108808435717.
^ Burghardt, Tom. "ANTI-ABORTION COP USES POLICE COMPUTER TO TRACK CLINIC WORKERS". Bay Area Coalition for Our Reproductive Rights. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
^ "The Death of Dr. Gunn". New York Times. 12 March 1993.
^ "Incidence of Violence & Disruption Against Abortion Providers in the U.S. & Canada" (PDF). National Abortion Federation. 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
^ Borger, Julian (3 February 1999). "The bomber under siege". The Guardian (London).
^ Mould R (1996). Mould's Medical Anecdotes. CRC Press. p. 406. ISBN 978-0-85274-119-1.
^ "Art theft linked to pro-life drive Abortion foe hints painting's return hinges on TV film". thestar.com. 18 February 1994. Retrieved 2010-09-25.
^ "Principally relating to Xiao Yu's work Ruan". Other Shore Artfile. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
^ Soupcoff, Marni (17 April 2008). "Marni Soupcoff's Zeitgeist: Photofiddle, Rentbetter.org, Mandie Brady and Aliza Shvarts". Full Comment. National Post. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
^ John Irving (1985). The Cider House Rules. New York: William Morrow. ISBN 978-0-688-03036-0.
^ Marge Piercy (1997). Braided Lives. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-449-00091-5.
^ Susan Wicklund (2007). This Common Secret: My Journey as an Abortion Doctor. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-480-4.
^ Irene Vilar (2009). Impossible Motherhood: Testimony of an Abortion Addict. Other Press. ISBN 978-1-59051-320-0.
^ Finch, Annie (2010). Among the Goddesses. California: Red Hen Press. ISBN 978-1-59709-161-9.
^ "Godfather II". 1974. Retrieved 2011-12-27. "Oh, Michael. Michael, you are blind. It wasn't a miscarriage. It was an abortion. An abortion, Michael. Just like our marriage is an abortion. Something that's unholy and evil. I didn't want your son, Michael! I wouldn't bring another one of you sons into this world! It was an abortion, Michael! It was a son Michael! A son! And I had it killed because this must all end!"
^ "films that discuss Abortion ... a movie list". movietrain.net. Archived from the original on 26 July 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
^ Wyatt, Edward (22 October 2009). "NBC's 'Law & Order' to Take on Abortion Issue". New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
^ Spencer, James (1911). Sheep Husbandry in Canada. p. 124.
^ "Beef cattle and Beef production: Management and Husbandry of Beef Cattle". Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. 1966.
^ Overton, Rebecca (2003-03). "By a Hair". Paint Horse Journal. Retrieved 2012-12-19.
^ "Herpesvirus in Dog Pups". petMD. Retrieved 2012-12-18.
^ "Spaying Pregnant Females". Carol's Ferals. Retrieved 2012-12-17.
^ Coates, Jennifer (7 May 2007). "Feline abortion: often an unnerving necessity". petMD. Retrieved 2012-12-18.
^ Khuly, Patty (1 April 2011). "Feline abortion: often an unnerving necessity (Part 2)". petMD. Retrieved 2012-12-18.
^ McKinnon, Angus O.; Voss, James L. (1993). Equine Reproduction. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 563. ISBN 0-8121-1427-2.
^ Berger, Joel W; Vuletić, L; Boberić, J; Milosavljević, A; Dilparić, S; Tomin, R; Naumović, P (5 May 1983). "Induced abortion and social factors in wild horses". Nature 303 (5912): 59–61. doi:10.1038/303059a0. PMID 7 668248 7.
^ Pluháček, Jan; Bartos, L (2000). "Male infanticide in captive plains zebra, Equus burchelli". Animal Behaviour 59 (4): 689–694. doi:10.1006/anbe.1999.1371. PMID 10792924.
^ Pluháček, Jan (2005). "Further evidence for male infanticide and feticide in captive plains zebra, Equus burchelli". Folia Zool. 54 (3): 258–262.
^ Kirkpatrick, J. F.; Turner, J. W. (1991). "Changes in Herd Stallions among Feral Horse Bands and the Absence of

 

[Jon.]

Notes
^ The definition of abortion, as with many words, varies from source to source. The following is a partial list of definitions as stated by obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN) textbooks, dictionaries, and other encyclopedias:
Major OB/GYN textbooks
The National Center for Health Statistics defines an "abortus" as "[a] fetus or embryo removed or expelled from the uterus during the first half of gestation—20 weeks or less, or in the absence of accurate dating criteria, born weighing < 500 g." They also define "birth" as "[t]he complete expulsion or extraction from the mother of a fetus after 20 weeks' gestation. ... in the absence of accurate dating criteria, fetuses weighing <500 g are usually not considered as births, but rather are termed abortuses for purposes of vital statistics." Cunningham, FG; Leveno, KJ; Bloom, SL et al., eds. (2010). "1. Overview of Obstetrics". Williams Obstetrics (23 ed.). McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 978-0-07-149701-5.
"[T]he standard medical definition of abortion [is] termination of a pregnancy when the fetus is not viable". Annas, George J.; Elias, Sherman (2007). "51. Legal and Ethical Issues in Obstetric Practice". In Gabbe, Steven G.; Niebyl, Jennifer R.; Simpson, Joe Leigh. Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies (5 ed.). Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-443-06930-7.
"Termination of a pregnancy, whether spontaneous or induced." Kottke, Melissa J.; Zieman, Mimi (2008). "33. Management of Abortion". In Rock, John A.; Jones III, Howard W.. TeLinde's Operative Gynecology (10 ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-7234-1.
Other OB/GYN textbooks
"Termination of pregnancy before 20 weeks' gestation calculated from date of onset of last menses. An alternative definition is delivery of a fetus with a weight of less than 500 g. If abortion occurs before 12 weeks' gestation, it is called early; from 12 to 20 weeks it is called late." Katz, Vern L. (2007). "16. Spontaneous and Recurrent Abortion – Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment". In Katz, Vern L.; Lentz, Gretchen M.; Lobo, Rogerio A. et al.. Katz: Comprehensive Gynecology (5 ed.). Mosby. ISBN 978-0-323-02951-3.
"Abortion is the spontaneous or induced termination of pregnancy before fetal viability. Because popular use of the word abortion implies a deliberate pregnancy termination, some prefer the word miscarriage to refer to spontaneous fetal loss before viability ... The National Center for Health Statistics, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the World Health Organization (WHO) define abortion as pregnancy termination prior to 20 weeks' gestation or a fetus born weighing less than 500 g. Despite this, definitions vary widely according to state laws." Schorge, John O.; Schaffer, Joseph I.; Halvorson, Lisa M. et al., eds. (2008). "6. First-Trimester Abortion". Williams Gynecology (1 ed.). McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 978-0-07-147257-9.
Major medical dictionaries
"The spontaneous or induced termination of pregnancy before the fetus reaches a viable age." "Taber's Medical Dictionary: abortion". Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary. F.A. Davis. Archived from the original on 14 June 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
"Expulsion from the uterus an embryo or fetus prior to the stage of viability (20 weeks' gestation or fetal weight <500g). A distinction made between [abortion] and premature birth: premature infants are those born after the stage of viability but prior to 37 weeks." Stedman's Medical Dictionary (27 ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-683-40008-8.
"[P]remature expulsion from the uterus of the products of conception, either the embryo or a nonviable fetus." Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary (31 ed.). Saunders. 2007. ISBN 978-1-4160-2364-7.
Other medical dictionaries
"[T]he termination of a pregnancy after, accompanied by, resulting in, or closely followed by the death of the embryo or fetus". "Medical Dictionary". Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 15 June 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
"Induced termination of pregnancy, involving destruction of the embryo or fetus." "abortion." The American Heritage Science Dictionary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 2005. ISBN 978-0-618-45504-1.
"Interruption of pregnancy before the fetus has attained a stage of viability, usually before the 24th gestational week." "abortion." Cambridge Dictionary of Human Biology and Evolution. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. 2005. OCLC 54374716.
"[A] spontaneous or deliberate ending of pregnancy before the fetus can be expected to survive." "abortion." Mosby's Emergency Dictionary. Philadelphia: Elsevier Health Sciences. 1998. OCLC 37553784.[verification needed]
"[A] situation where a fetus leaves the uterus before it is fully developed, especially during the first 28 weeks of pregnancy, or a procedure which causes this to happen ... [T]o have an abortion to have an operation to make a fetus leave the uterus during the first period of pregnancy." ""abortion"". Dictionary of Medical Terms. London: A & C Black. 2005. OCLC 55634250.
"1. Induced termination of a pregnancy with destruction of the fetus or embryo; therapeutic abortion. 2. Spontaneous abortion." The American Heritage Medical Dictionary (reprint ed.). Houghton Mifflin. 2008. p. 2. ISBN 0-618-94725-6. OCLC 608212441.
"Although the term abortion is generic and implies a premature termination of pregnancy for any reason, the lay public better understands the word 'miscarriage' for involuntary fetal loss or fetal wastage." The Dictionary of Modern Medicine. Parthenon Publishing. 1992. p. 3. ISBN 1-85070-321-3.
"The termination of pregnancy or premature expulsion of the products of conception by any means, usually before fetal viability." Churchill's Medical Dictionary. Churchill Livingstone. 1989. p. 3. ISBN 0-443-08691-5.
Major English dictionaries (general-purpose)
"1. a. The expulsion or removal from the womb of a developing embryo or fetus, spec. (Med.) in the period before it is capable of independent survival, occurring as a result either of natural causes (more fully spontaneous abortion) or of a deliberate act (more fully induced abortion); the early or premature termination of pregnancy with loss of the fetus; an instance of this." "abortion, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (Third ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2009; online version September 2011.
"[A]n operation or other procedure to terminate pregnancy before the fetus is viable" or "[T]he premature termination of pregnancy by spontaneous or induced expulsion of a nonviable fetus from the uterus". "abortion". Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. HarperCollins Publishers. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
"[T]he removal of an embryo or fetus from the uterus in order to end a pregnancy" or "[A]ny of various surgical methods for terminating a pregnancy, especially during the first six months." "abortion". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc.. 27 June 2011.
"[T]he termination of a pregnancy after, accompanied by, resulting in, or closely followed by the death of the embryo or fetus: as (a) spontaneous expulsion of a human fetus during the first 12 weeks of gestation (b) induced expulsion of a human fetus (c) expulsion of a fetus by a domestic animal often due to infection at any time before completion of pregnancy." Merriam-Webster Dictionary, from Merriam-Webster, an Encyclopedia Brittanica Company.
"1. medicine the removal of an embryo or fetus from the uterus before it is sufficiently developed to survive independently, deliberately induced by the use of drugs or by surgical procedures. Also called termination or induced abortion. 2. medicine the spontaneous expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the uterus before it is sufficiently developed to survive independently. Also called miscarriage, spontaneous abortion." Chambers 21st Century Dictionary. London: Chambers Harrap, 2001.
"a medical operation to end a pregnancy so that the baby is not born alive". Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, online edition.
Other dictionaries
"The deliberate termination of a pregnancy, usually before the embryo or fetus is capable of independent life." The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (3rd ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2005.
"A term that, in philosophy, theology, and social debates, often means the deliberate termination of pregnancy before the fetus is able to survive outside the uterus. However, participants in these debates sometimes use the term abortion simply to mean the termination of pregnancy before birth, regardless of whether the fetus is viable or not." "abortion." Dictionary of World Philosophy. London: Routledge, 2001.
"1. An artificially induced termination of a pregnancy for the purpose of destroying an embryo or fetus. 2. The spontaneous expulsion of an embryo or fetus before viability;" Garner, Bryan A. (June 2009). Black's Law Dictionary (9th ed.).

 

[Jon.]

Encyclopedias
"[T]he expulsion of a fetus from the uterus before it has reached the stage of viability (in human beings, usually about the 20th week of gestation)." "Abortion (pregnancy)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2011. Archived from the original on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
"Expulsion of the products of conception before the embryo or fetus is viable. Any interruption of human pregnancy prior to the 28th week is known as abortion." "Abortion". The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press. 2008.
"The expulsion or removal of a fetus from the womb before it is capable of independent survival." "Abortion". World Encyclopedia. Oxford University Press. 2008.
"[Abortion] is commonly misunderstood outside medical circles. In general terms, the word 'abortion' simply means the failure of something to reach fulfilment or maturity. Medically, abortion means loss of the fetus, for any reason, before it is able to survive outside the womb. The term covers accidental or spontaneous ending, or miscarriage, of pregnancy as well as deliberate termination. The terms 'spontaneous abortion' and 'miscarriage' are synonymous and are defined as loss of the fetus before the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy. This definition implies a legal perception of the age at which a fetus can survive out of the womb. With great advances in recent years in the ability to keep very premature babies alive, this definition is in need of revision." "Abortion and miscarriage". The Royal Society of Medicine Health Encyclopedia. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. 2000.
"Abortion is the intentional removal of a fetus or an embryo from a mother's womb for purposes other than that of either producing a live birth or disposing of a dead embryo." "Abortion". Encyclopedia of Human Rights Issues since 1945 (1 ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Routledge. 1999. ISBN 978-1-57958-166-4.
^ By 1930, medical procedures in the US had improved for both childbirth and abortion but not equally, and induced abortion in the first trimester had become safer than childbirth. In 1973, Roe vs. Wade acknowledged that abortion in the first trimester was safer than childbirth:
"The 1970s". Time communication 1940–1989: retrospective. Time, Inc.. 1989. "Blackmun was also swayed by the fact that most abortion prohibitions were enacted in the 19th century when the procedure was more dangerous than now."
Will, George (1990). Suddenly: the American idea abroad and at home, 1986–1990. Free Press. p. 312. ISBN 0-02-934435-2.
Lewis, J.; Shimabukuro, Jon O. (28 January 2001). "Abortion Law Development: A Brief Overview". Congressional Research Service. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
*Schultz, David Andrew (2002). Encyclopedia of American law. Infobase Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 0-8160-4329-9.
Lahey, Joanna N. (24 September 2009). "Birthing a Nation: Fertility Control Access and the 19th Century Demographic Transition" (PDF; preliminary version). Colloquium. Pomona College.
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[Jon.]

Anus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the bodily orifice. For other uses, see Anus (disambiguation).
For details specific to the human anus, see Human anus.

Anus

Formation of anus in proto- and deuterostomes
Latin Anus
Gray's subject #249 1184
System Alimentary, sometimes reproductive
Artery Inferior rectal artery
Vein Inferior rectal vein
Nerve Inferior rectal nerves
Lymph Superficial inguinal lymph nodes
Precursor Proctodeum
The anus (from Latin anus, meaning "ring, anus", which is from the Proto-Indo-European ano–, meaning "ring" ) is an opening at the opposite end of an animal's digestive tract from the mouth. Its function is to control the expulsion of feces, unwanted semi-solid matter produced during digestion, which, depending on the type of animal, may include: matter which the animal cannot digest, such as bones;[1] food material after all the nutrients have been extracted, for example cellulose or lignin; ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; and dead or excess gut bacteria and other endosymbionts.
Amphibians, reptiles, and birds use the same orifice (known as the cloaca) for excreting liquid and solid wastes, and for copulation and egg-laying. Monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes via the therapsids. Marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a separate vagina for reproduction. Female placental mammals have completely separate orifices for defecation, urination, and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and another for both urination and reproduction, although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate.
The development of the anus was an important stage in the evolution of multicellular animals. It appears to have happened at least twice, following different paths in protostomes and deuterostomes. This accompanied or facilitated other important evolutionary developments: the bilaterian body plan, the coelom, and metamerism, in which the body was built of repeated "modules" which could later specialize, such as the heads of most arthropods, which are composed of fused, specialized segments.
Development

Main articles: Protostome and Deuterostome
In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the embryo forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the growth of the gut. In deuterostomes, the original dent becomes the anus while the gut eventually tunnels through to make another opening, which forms the mouth. The protostomes were so named because it was thought that in their embryos the dent formed the mouth first (proto– meaning "first") and the anus was formed later at the opening made by the other end of the gut. More recent research, however, shows that in protostomes the edges of the dent close up in the middle, leaving openings at the ends which become the mouth and anus.[2]
Notes

^ Chin, K., Erickson, G.M. et al. (1998-06-18). "A king-sized theropod coprolite". Nature 393 (6686): 680. doi:10.1038/31461. Summary at Monastersky, R. (1998-06-20). "Getting the scoop from the poop of T. rex". Science News (Society for Science &#38) 153 (25): 391. doi:10.2307/4010364. JSTOR 4010364.
^ Arendt, D., Technau, U., and Wittbrodt, J. (4 January 2001). "Evolution of the bilaterian larval foregut". Nature 409 (6816): 81–85. doi:10.1038/35051075. PMID 11343117. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
See also

Anal canal
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[Jon.]

Men who have sex with men
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Gay sex)

Men who have sex with men (abbreviated as MSM, also known as males who have sex with males) are male persons who engage in sexual activity with members of the same sex, regardless of how they identify themselves; many men choose not to (or cannot for other reasons) accept sexual identities of homosexual or bisexual.[1] The term was created in the 1990s by epidemiologists in order to study the spread of disease among men who have sex with men, regardless of identity.[1]
MSM is often used in medical literature and social research to describe such men as a group for research studies without considering issues of self-identification.
Contents [hide]
1 As a constructed behavioral category
1.1 As applied to transgender individuals
2 Prevalence
3 Sexual practices
4 Health issues
4.1 Mental
4.2 Sexually transmitted infections
4.2.1 HIV/AIDS
4.2.2 Hepatitis B
4.2.3 Other sexually transmitted infections
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
As a constructed behavioral category

The term had been in use in public health discussions, especially in the context of HIV/AIDS, since 1990 or earlier, but the coining of the initialism by Glick et al. in 1994 "signaled the crystallization of a new concept."[2][3] This behavioural concept comes from two distinct academic perspectives. First, it was pursued by epidemiologists seeking behavioral categories that would offer better analytical concepts for the study of disease-risk than identity-based categories (such as "gay", "bisexual", or "straight"), because a man who self-identifies as gay or bisexual is not necessarily sexually active with men, and someone who identifies as straight might be sexually active with men. Second, its usage is tied to criticism of sexual identity terms prevalent in social construction literature which typically rejected the use of identity-based concepts across cultural and historical contexts.
MSM are not limited to small, self-identified, and visible sub-populations. MSM and gay refer to different things: behaviors and social identities. MSM refers to sexual activities between men, regardless of how they identify, whereas gay can include those activities but is more broadly seen as a cultural identity. Homosexuality refers to sexual/romantic attraction between members of the same sex and may or may not include romantic relationships. Gay is a social identity and is generally the preferred social term, whereas homosexual is used in formal contexts, though the terms are not entirely interchangeable. Men who are non-heterosexual or questioning may identify with all, none, a combination of these, or one of the newer terms indicating a similar sexual, romantic, and cultural identity like bi-curious.
In their assessment of the knowledge about the sexual networks and behaviors of MSM in Asia, Dowsett, Grierson and McNally concluded that the category of MSM does not correspond to a single social identity in any of the countries they studied.[4] There were no similar traits in all of the MSM population studied, other than them being males and engaging in sex with other men.
In some countries, homosexual relationships may be illegal or taboo, making MSM difficult to reach.[5][6]
As applied to transgender individuals
The term's precise use and definition has varied with regard to transwomen, people born either biologically male or with ambiguous genitalia who self-identify as female.[7] Some sources consider transwomen who have sex with men to be MSM,[8] others consider transwomen "alongside" MSM,[1] and others are internally inconsistent (defining transgender women to be MSM in one place but referring to "MSM and transgender" in another).[9]
Prevalence

Determining the number of men who have ever had sex with another man is difficult. Worldwide, at least 3% of men, and perhaps as high as 16% of men, have had sex at least once with a man.[10] These figures include victims of sexual abuse in addition to men who regularly or voluntarily have sex with men.
In the U.S., among men aged 15 to 44, an estimated 6% have engaged in oral or anal sex with another man at some point in their lives, and about 2.9% have had at least one male partner in the previous 12 months.[11]
Sexual practices

Historically, anal sex has been popularly associated with male homosexuality and MSM. However, many MSM do not engage in anal sex, and may engage in oral sex, frotting or other forms of mutual masturbation instead.[12][13][14][15] Among those who do have anal sex, the insertive partner is referred to as the top or active partner. The man being penetrated is referred to as the bottom or passive partner.[14] Preference for either is referred to as versatile.[14] MSM may also have greater risks in that they can switch sex roles.[16]
Health issues

Since LGBT people began to organize for their social and legal rights, access to equal health care has remained an important but often not primary issue. LGBT-specific health organizations have been formed, including charities educating on specific issues, health clinics, and even professional organizations for LGBT people and their allies. Many of them have advocated for specific changes to various governmental practices, and the ongoing effort to legalize same-sex marriage often includes examples of LGBT people unable to secure health coverage equivalent to that of their heterosexual counterparts.
Mental
Since medical literature began to describe homosexuality, it has often been approached from a view that assumed or sought to find an inherent psychopathology as the root cause. Much literature on mental health and homosexuals centered on examples of their depression, substance abuse, and suicide. Although these issues exist among non-heterosexuals, discussion about their causes shifted after homosexuality was removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in 1973. Instead, social ostracism, legal discrimination, internalization of negative stereotypes, and limited support structures are all indications of the issues faced by homosexuals in Western societies, which often adversely affect their mental health.[17]
Sexually transmitted infections
Main article: sexually transmitted disease
A 2007 study reported that two large population surveys found "the majority of gay men had similar numbers of unprotected sexual partners annually as straight men and women."[16][18] Anal sex is considered to be very risky behavior. A person who inserts his penis into an infected partner is at risk because STIs can enter through the urethra or through small cuts, abrasions, or open sores on the penis. Also, condoms are more likely to break during anal sex than during vaginal sex. Thus, even with a condom, anal sex can be risky.[19]
HIV/AIDS
Main article: Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).[20][21][22] HIV can infect anybody, regardless of sex, ethnicity, or sexual orientation.[23] Worldwide, an estimated 5–10% of HIV infections are the result of men having sex with men.[24] However in many developed countries, including the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and most of Western Europe, more HIV infections are transmitted by men having sex with men than by any other transmission route.[23] In the United States, "men who have had sex with men since 1977 have an HIV prevalence (the total number of cases of a disease that are present in a population at a specific point in time) 60 times higher than the general population".[25]
In 2007, the largest estimated proportion of HIV/AIDS diagnoses among adults and adolescents in the U.S. were men who have sex with men (MSM). While this category is only 2% of the U.S. population[26] they accounted for 53% of the overall diagnoses and 71% among men.[27] According to a 2010 federal study, one in five men who have sex with men are HIV positive and nearly half don't realize it.[28]
According to a CDC study, HIV prevalence in the MSM population of the U.S. varies widely by ethnicity. "As many as 46% of black MSM have HIV" while "the HIV rate is estimated at 21% for white MSM and 17% for Hispanic MSM."[29][30][31] In the United States from 2001–2005, the highest transmission risk behaviors were sex between men (40–49% of new cases) and high risk heterosexual sex (32–35% of new cases).[32] HIV infection is increasing at a rate of 12% annually among 13–24-year-old American men who have sex with men.[33][34][35] Experts attribute this to "AIDS fatigue" among younger people who have no memory of the worst phase of the epidemic in the 1980s and early 1990s, as well as "condom fatigue" among those who have grown tired of and disillusioned with the unrelenting safer sex message. The increase may also be because of new treatments.[33] In developing countries, HIV infection rates have been characterized as skyrocketing among MSM.[36] Studies have found that less than 5% of MSM in Africa, Asia, and Latin America have access to HIV-related health care.[36]

 

[Jon.]

Hepatitis B
Main article: Hepatitis B
Hepatitis B is a disease caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV) which infects the liver of hominoidea, including humans, and causes an inflammation called hepatitis. The disease has caused epidemics in parts of Asia and Africa, and it is endemic in China.[37] About a third of the world's population, more than 2 billion people, have been infected with HBV.[38] Transmission of HBV results from exposure to infectious blood or body fluids containing blood. Possible forms of transmission include (but are not limited to) unprotected sexual contact, blood transfusions, re-use of contaminated needles and syringes, and vertical transmission from mother to child during childbirth. HBV can also be transmitted between family members within households, possibly by contact of non-intact skin or mucous membrane with secretions or saliva containing the virus.[39][40] However, at least 30% of reported hepatitis B cases among adults cannot be associated with an identifiable risk factor.[41]
Other sexually transmitted infections
MSM have an increased incidence and prevalence of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) including Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and syphilis.[42] This follows an increase in Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) among men who have sex with men in the U.S.[43]
Syphilis (caused by infection with Treponema pallidum) is passed from person to person through direct contact with a syphilis sore; these occur mainly on the external genitals, or in the vagina, anus, or rectum.[44] Sores also can occur on the lips and in the mouth.[44] Transmission of the organism occurs during vaginal, anal, or oral sex.[44] In 2006, 64% of the reported cases in the United States were among men who have sex with men.[44] This is consistent with a rise in the incidence of Syphilis among MSM in other developed nations, attributed by Australian and UK authors to increased rates of unprotected sex among MSM.[45][46]
Genital human papillomavirus (HPV) is a common virus that most sexually active people in the U.S. will have at some time in their lives.[47] It is passed on through genital contact and is also found on areas that condoms do not cover.[47] Most men who get HPV of any type never develop any symptoms or health problems.[47] Some types of HPV can cause genital warts, penile cancer, or anal cancer.[47] MSM and men with compromised immune systems are more likely than other men to develop anal cancer.[47] Men with HIV are also more likely to get severe cases of genital warts that are hard to treat.[47][48][49]
Though not commonly associated as an STI, giardiasis is common among gay men,[50] and it can be responsible for severe weight loss and death for individuals who have compromised immune systems, especially HIV.[51]
See also

LGBT portal
Gay-for-pay
Down-low (sexual slang)
Prison sexuality
MSM blood donor controversy
Sexual orientation identity
Terminology of homosexuality
Women who have sex with women
Rape of males by males
References

^ a b c "UNAIDS: Men who have sex with men". UNAIDS. Retrieved April 30, 2011.
^ Young RM, Meyer IH (July 2005). "The trouble with "MSM" and "WSW": erasure of the sexual-minority person in public health discourse". Am J Public Health 95 (7): 1144–1149. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.046714. PMC 1449332. PMID 15961753.
^ Glick M, Muzyka BC, Salkin LM, Lurie D (May 1994). "Necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis: a marker for immune deterioration and a predictor for the diagnosis of AIDS". J. Periodontol. 65 (5): 393–7. PMID 7913962.
^ A review of knowledge about the sexual networks and behaviors of men who have sex with men in Asia. Dowsett, Grierson and McNally.[1][dead link]
^ "MSM in Africa: highly stigmatized, vulnerable and in need of urgent HIV prevention".
^ "Criminalizing high-risk groups such as MSM".
^ Operario D, Burton J, Underhill K, Sevelius J (January 2008). "Men who have sex with transgender women: challenges to category-based HIV prevention". AIDS Behav 12 (1): 18–26. doi:10.1007/s10461-007-9303-y. PMID 17705095.
^ Greenwood, Cseneca; Mario Ruberte (April 9, 2004). "African American Community and HIV (Slide 14 mentions TG women)" (ppt). East Bay AIDS Education and Training Center. Retrieved July 24, 2008.
^ Operario D, Burton J (April 2000). "HIV-related tuberculosis in a transgender network—Baltimore, Maryland, and New York City area, 1998–2000". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 49 (15): 317–20. PMID 10858008.
^ Between Men – HIV/STI prevention for men who have sex with men. p. 3.
^ Mosher, William D.; Anjani Chandra and Jo Jones (September 15, 2005). "Sexual Behavior and Selected Health Measures: Men and Women 15–44 Years of Age, United States, 2002". Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics (362): 2. Retrieved May 7, 2012.
^ Dr. John Dean and Dr. David Delvin. "Anal sex". Netdoctor.co.uk. Retrieved April 29, 2010.
^ "Not all gay men have anal sex". Go Ask Alice!. May 10, 1996 (Last Updated/Reviewed on June 13, 2008). Retrieved April 26, 2010.
^ a b c Steven Gregory Underwood (2003). Gay men and anal eroticism: tops, bottoms, and versatiles. Psychology Press. pp. 225. ISBN 1-56023-375-3, 9781560233756. Retrieved February 12, 2011.
^ Joe Perez (2006). Rising Up. Lulu.com. pp. 248. ISBN 1-4116-9173-3, 9781411691735. Retrieved March 24, 2011.
^ a b Sexual Behavior Does Not Explain Varying HIV Rates Among Gay And Straight Men
^ Schlager, Neil, ed. (1998). Gay & Lesbian Almanac. St. James Press. ISBN 1-55862-358-2, p. 152.
^ Goodreau SM, Golden MR (October 2007). "Biological and demographic causes of high HIV and sexually transmitted disease prevalence in men who have sex with men". Sex Transm Infect 83 (6): 458–462. doi:10.1136/sti.2007.025627. PMC 2598698. PMID 17855487.
^ Center for Disease Control; "Can I get HIV from anal sex?"
^ Sepkowitz KA (June 2001). "AIDS—the first 20 years". N. Engl. J. Med. 344 (23): 1764–1772. doi:10.1056/NEJM200106073442306. PMID 11396444.
^ Weiss RA (May 1993). "How does HIV cause AIDS?". Science 260 (5112): 1273–1279. doi:10.1126/science.8493571. PMID 8493571.
^ Cecil, Russell (1988). Textbook of Medicine. Philadelphia: Saunders. pp. 1523, 1799. ISBN 0-7216-1848-0.
^ a b "2009 AIDS epidemic update". Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS and World Health Organization. November 2009. Retrieved September 28, 2011.
^ Men who have sex with men, HIV and AIDS
^ http://www.fda.gov/biologicsbloodvaccines/bloodbloodproducts/questionsaboutblood/ucm108186.htm
^ "Few Americans with HIV have virus under control". MSNBC.com News Services. Retrieved November 30, 2011.
^ http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/factsheets/us.htm
^ "1 in 5 men who have sex with men have HIV, nearly half don't know it". USA Today. September 23, 2011. Retrieved November 30, 2011.
^ http://www.infectiousdiseasenews.com/article/37101.aspx HIV more prevalent among black MSM despite fewer risk behaviors
^ "Explaining disparities in HIV infection among black and white men who have sex with men: a meta-analysis of HIV risk behaviors". AIDS: Official Journal of the International AIDS Society. October 2007.
^ Kaiser Daily HIV/AIDS Report Summarizes Opinion Pieces on U.S. AIDS Epidemic – The Body
^ "2005 report".
^ a b Paddock, Catharine (June 27, 2008). "HIV Rising Among Young Gay Men In The US". Medical News Today.
^ "Trends in HIV/AIDS diagnoses among men who have sex with men—33 States, 2001–2006". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 57 (25): 681–6. June 2008. PMID 18583954.
^ "New HIV diagnoses rising in New York City among young men who have sex with men".
^ a b "HIV rates skyrocketing among men who have sex with men".
^ Williams R (2006). "Global challenges in liver disease". Hepatology 44 (3): 521–526. doi:10.1002/hep.21347. PMID 16941687.
^ "WHO | Hepatitis B".
^ Petersen NJ, Barrett DH, Bond WW, Berquist KR, Favero MS, Bender TR, Maynard JE (1976). "Hepatitis B surface antigen in saliva, impetiginous lesions, and the environment in two remote Alaskan villages". Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 32 (4): 572–4. PMC 170308. PMID 791124.
^ "Hepatitis B – the facts".
^ Shapiro CN (1993). "Epidemiology of hepatitis B". Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 12 (5): 433–437. doi:10.1097/00006454-199305000-00036. PMID 8392167.
^ "Risky Sexual Behavior Among MSM In Europe Increasing Number Of Syphilis Cases, Health Officials Say".
^ STD Surveillance 2006: Men Who Have Sex With Men, Center for Disease Control
^ a b c d Syphilis & MSM (Men Who Have Sex With Men) – CDC Fact Sheet, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
^ Christopher K Fairley, Jane S Hocking and Nicholas Medland. "Syphilis: back on the rise, but not unstoppable". Medical Journal of Australia 2005; 183 (4): 172–173
^ M Hourihan, H Wheeler, R Houghton, B T Goh (2004). "Lessons from the syphilis outbreak in homosexual men in east London". Sex Transm Infect 80 (6): 509–511. doi:10.1136/sti.2004.011023. PMC 1744940. PMID 15572625
^ a b c d e f "STD Facts – HPV and Men". Retrieved August 17, 2007.
^ Frisch M, Smith E, Grulich A, Johansen C (2003). "Cancer in a population-based cohort of men and women in registered homosexual partnerships". Am. J. Epidemiol. 157 (11): 966–972. doi:10.1093/aje/kwg067. PMID 12777359. "However, the risk for invasive anal squamous carcinoma, which is believed to be caused by certain types of sexually transmitted human papilloma viruses, notably type 16, was significantly 31-fold elevated at a crude incidence of 25.6 per 100,000 person-years."
^ Chin-Hong PV, Vittinghoff E, Cranston RD et al. (2005). "Age-related prevalence of anal cancer precursors in homosexual men: the EXPLORE study". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 97 (12): 896–905. doi:10.1093/jnci/dji163. PMID 15956651.
^ http://www.ndsc.ie/hpsc/A-Z/Gastroenteric/Giardiasis/Factsheet/
^ http://www.water-research.net/Giardia.htm

 

[Jon.]

Further reading

Assessment of sexual health needs of males who have sex with males in Laos and Thailand. Naz Foundation International [2]
Gay Guise: What to do when your client has sex with men and is not gay, 2007 July/August Psychotherapy Networker
Boellstorff, Tom (2004). "Playing Back the Nation: Waria, Indonesian Transvestites". Cultural Anthropology (American Anthropological Association) 19.2: 159. ISSN 08867356. OCLC 98072867. Archived from the original on April 1, 2004
Zhongxin, S; Farrer, J; Choi, K H (2006). "Sexual Identity Among Men Who Have Sex with Men in Shanghai". China Perspectives 64: 2–12. ISSN 10112006. OCLC 197632333. Archived from the original on March 9, 2008
UNESCO (2006). UNESCO guidelines on language and content in HIV- and AIDS-related materials. UNESCO, Education Sector, Div. for the Coordination of UN Priorities in Education, Section on HIV and AIDS. OCLC 123125234
External links

CDC: HIV/AIDS among Men Who Have Sex with Men
MSM and HIV research and needs assessments from AIDSPortal
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[Jon.]

Erection
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about penile erection. For the similar arousal in females, see clitoral erection. For the erection of a building, see construction.
"Hard on" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Hard-Ons, an Australian punk rock band.

An erection, or penile erection, is a physiological phenomenon where the penis becomes firmer, engorged and enlarged. Penile erection is the result of a complex interaction of psychological, neural, vascular and endocrine factors, and is usually, though not exclusively, associated with sexual arousal or sexual attraction. The angle of an erect penis varies from pointing downwards, upwards or sideways, and the penis may also bend.
Erections during sleep or when waking up are known as nocturnal penile tumescence (NPT). A penis which is partly, but not fully, erect is sometimes known as a semi-erection; a penis which is not erect is typically referred to as being flaccid, or soft.
Contents [hide]
1 Terminology
2 Physiology
2.1 During sexual activity
2.2 Autonomic control
3 Shape and size
4 Spontaneous or random erections
5 Medical conditions
5.1 Erectile dysfunction
5.2 Priapism
6 In non-human animals
6.1 Dogs
7 See also
8 References
Terminology

Erections have many informal and slang terms, including 'stiffy', 'hard-on', 'boner' and 'woody'.[1] There are several slang words, euphemisms and synonyoms for an erection in English and in other languages. See the WikiSaurus entry for a list of alternative terms.
Physiology



Composite image showing the development of a penile erection.
An erection occurs when two tubular structures, called the corpora cavernosa, that run the length of the penis, become engorged with venous blood. This may result from any of various physiological stimuli, also known as sexual stimulation and sexual arousal. The corpus spongiosum is a single tubular structure located just below the corpora cavernosa, which contains the urethra, through which urine and semen pass during urination and ejaculation respectively. This may also become slightly engorged with blood, but less so than the corpora cavernosa.
During sexual activity
A penile erection is an indicator of sexual arousal and is required for a male to effect vaginal penetration and sexual intercourse. The scrotum may, but not always, become tightened during an erection. Generally, the foreskin automatically and gradually retracts, exposing the glans, though some males may have to manually retract their foreskin.
After a male has ejaculated during a sexual encounter or masturbation, the erection usually ends, but this may take time depending on the length and thickness of the penis.[2]
Autonomic control
In the presence of mechanical stimulation, erection is initiated by the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) with minimal input from the central nervous system. Parasympathetic branches extend from the sacral plexus into the arteries supplying the erectile tissue; upon stimulation, these nerve branches release acetylcholine, which, in turn causes release of nitric oxide from endothelial cells in the trabecular arteries.[3] Nitric oxide diffuses to the smooth muscle of the arteries (called trabecular smooth muscle[4]), acting as a vasodilating agent. The arteries dilate, filling the corpora spongiosum and cavernosa with blood. The ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus muscles also compress the veins of the corpora cavernosa, limiting the venous drainage of blood.[5] Erection subsides when parasympathetic stimulation is discontinued; baseline stimulation from the sympathetic division of the ANS causes constriction of the penile arteries, forcing blood out of the erectile tissue.[6] The cerebral cortex can initiate erection in the absence of direct mechanical stimulation (in response to visual, auditory, olfactory, imagined, or tactile stimuli) acting through erectile centers in the lumbar and sacral regions of the spinal cord. The cortex can suppress erection even in the presence of mechanical stimulation, as can other psychological, emotional, and environmental factors. The term that is opposite to erection is detumescence.
Shape and size

Main article: Human penis size
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Erect human penis


An erect human penis
The length of the flaccid penis does not necessarily correspond to the length of the penis when it becomes erect; some smaller flaccid penises grow much longer, while some larger flaccid penises grow comparatively less.[7] Generally, the size of an erect penis is fixed throughout post-pubescent life. Its size may be increased by surgery,[8] although penile enlargement is controversial, and a majority of men were "not satisfied" with the results, according to one study.[9]
Although many erect penises point upwards, it is common and normal for the erect penis to point nearly vertically upwards or nearly vertically downwards or even horizontally straight forward, all depending on the tension of the suspensory ligament that holds it in position. An erect penis can also take on a number of different shapes, ranging from a straight tube to a tube with a curvature up or down or to the left or right. An increase in penile curvature can be caused by Peyronie's disease. This may cause physical and psychological effects for the affected individual, which could include erectile dysfunction or pain during an erection. Treatments include oral medication (such as colchicine) or surgery, which is most often reserved as a last resort.
The following table shows how common various erection angles are for a standing male. In the table, zero degrees (0°) is pointing straight up against the abdomen, 90 degrees is horizontal and pointing straight forward, while 180 degrees would be pointing straight down to the feet. An upward pointing angle is most common.
Occurrence of erection angles[10]
Angle (°) Percent of population
0–30 5
30–60 30
60–85 31
85–95 10
95–120 20
120–180 5
Spontaneous or random erections

Spontaneous erections are also known as involuntary, random or unwanted erections and are normal. Such erections can be embarrassing if they happen in public, such as a classroom or living room.[11][12] Erections can occur spontaneously at any time of day, and if clothed may cause a bulge or "hump". This can be disguised or hidden by wearing close-fitting underwear, a long shirt and baggier clothes.[13]
The penis can regularly get erect during sleep and men or boys often wake up with an erection. Such an erection is medically known as nocturnal penile tumescence and informally known as morning wood or morning glory.[14][15][16][17] Once a boy reaches his teenage years, erections occur much more frequently due to puberty.[18] Male erections are common for children and infants, and even occur before birth.[19]
Medical conditions

Erectile dysfunction
Main article: Erectile dysfunction
Erectile dysfunction (also known as ED or "(male) impotence") is a sexual dysfunction characterized by the inability to develop and/or maintain an erection.[20][21] The study of erectile dysfunction within medicine is known as andrology, a sub-field within urology.[22]
Erectile dysfunction can occur due to both physiological and psychological reasons, most of which are amenable to treatment. Common physiological reasons include diabetes, kidney disease, chronic alcoholism, multiple sclerosis, atherosclerosis, vascular disease, and neurologic disease which collectively account for about 70 percent of ED cases. Some drugs used to treat other conditions, such as lithium and paroxetine, may cause erectile dysfunction.[21][23]
Erectile dysfunction, tied closely as it is to cultural notions of potency, success and masculinity, can have devastating psychological consequences including feelings of shame, loss or inadequacy;[24] There is a strong culture of silence and inability to discuss the matter. In fact, around one in ten men will experience recurring impotence problems at some point in their lives.[25]
Priapism
Priapism is a medical condition which could possibly be painful, and is a prolonged erection at least four hours long, which does not return to its flaccid state, despite the absence of both physical and psychological stimulation.
In non-human animals

This section requires expansion. (November 2012)

 

[Jon.]

Dogs
Main article: Canine tying
At the time of penetration, the canine penis is not erect, and only able to penetrate the female because it includes a narrow bone called the baculum, a feature of most placental mammals. After the male achieves penetration, he will often hold the female tighter and thrust faster, and it is during this time that the male's penis expands. Unlike human sexual intercourse, where the male penis commonly becomes erect before entering the female, canine copulation involves the male first penetrating the female, after which swelling of the penis to erection occurs.[26]
See also

Sexuality portal
Clitoral erection
Death erection
Erectores pilorum
Issues in social nudity
Nipple erection
Nocturnal penile tumescence
Priapism
Sexual function
References

^ Urge: Hot Secrets For Great Sex retrieved 27 February 2012
^ Harris, Robie H. (et al.), It's Perfectly Normal: Changing Bodies, Growing Up, Sex And Sexual Health. Boston, 1994. (ISBN 1-56402-199-8)
^ wiley.com > Viagra function image Retrieved on Mars 11, 2010
^ APDVS > 31. Anatomy and Physiology of Normal Erection Retrieved on Mars 11, 2010
^ Moore, Keith; Anne Agur (2007). Essential Clinical Anatomy, Third Edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 265. ISBN 0-7817-6274-X.
^ Drake, Richard, Wayne Vogl and Adam Mitchell, Grey's Anatomy for Students. Philadelphia, 2004. (ISBN 0-443-06612-4)
^ "Penis Size FAQ & Bibliography". Kinsey Institute. 2009.
^ Li CY, Kayes O, Kell PD, Christopher N, Minhas S, Ralph DJ (2006). "Penile suspensory ligament division for penile augmentation: indications and results". Eur. Urol. 49 (4): 729–733. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2006.01.020. PMID 16473458.
^ "Most Men Unsatisfied With Penis Enlargement Results". Fox News. 2006-02-16. Retrieved 2008-08-17.
^ Sparling J (1997). "Penile erections: shape, angle, and length". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy 23 (3): 195–207. doi:10.1080/00926239708403924. PMID 9292834.
^ The "What's Happening to My Body?" Book for Boys Lynda Madaras
^ The What's Happening to My Body Book for Girls Lynda Madaras
^ Making Sense of Sex Sarah Attwood
^ Morning Erections: Sizemed retrieved 28 February 2012
^ After Prostate Cancer: A What-Comes-Next Guide to a Safe and Informed recovery: p.48
^ Listen To Your Hormones, Abraham Harvey Kryger - 2004. p.32
^ Sexuality now: embracing diversity Janell L. Carroll
^ The "What's Happening to My Body?" Book for Boys Lynda Madaras; retrieved 11 February 2012
^ erections in babies retrieved 11 February 2012
^ Milsten, Richard (et al.), The Sexual Male. Problems And Solutions. London, 2000. (ISBN 0-393-32127-4)
^ a b Sadeghipour H, Ghasemi M, Ebrahimi F, Dehpour AR (2007). "Effect of lithium on endothelium-dependent and neurogenic relaxation of rat corpus cavernosum: role of nitric oxide pathway". Nitric Oxide 16 (1): 54–63. doi:10.1016/j.niox.2006.05.004. PMID 16828320.
^ Williams, Warwick, It's Up To You: Overcoming Erection Problems. London, 1989. (ISBN 0-7225-1915-X)
^ Sadeghipour H, Ghasemi M, Nobakht M, Ebrahimi F, Dehpour AR (2007). "Effect of chronic lithium administration on endothelium-dependent relaxation of rat corpus cavernosum: the role of nitric oxide and cyclooxygenase pathways". BJU Int. 99 (1): 177–182. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2006.06530.x. PMID 17034495.
^ Tanagho, Emil A. (et al.), Smith's General Urology. London, 2000. (ISBN 0-8385-8607-4)
^ NHS Direct – Health encyclopaedia -Erectile dysfunction
^ "Semen Collection from Dogs". Arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu. 2002-09-14. Retrieved 2012-01-29.
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Clitoral erection
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


Human vulva, not aroused (left), aroused (right), see also Biological functions of nitric oxide
Clitoral erection is a physiological phenomenon where the clitoris becomes enlarged and firm. Clitoral erection is the result of a complex interaction of psychological, neural, vascular and endocrine factors, and is usually, though not exclusively, associated with sexual arousal.
Contents [hide]
1 Physiology
1.1 Causes
2 Signs of clitoral stimulation
3 Shape and size
4 Priapism
5 Neurovascular mechanism of clitoral erection
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
[edit]Physiology



The internal anatomy of the human vulva, with the clitoral hood and labia minora indicated as lines.
Clitoral erection occurs when the corpora cavernosa, two expandable erectile structures, become engorged with venous blood. This may result from any of various physiological stimuli, including sexual stimulation and sexual arousal. The extrusion of the glans clitoridis and thinning of the skin enhances sensitivity to physical contact. After a female has orgasmed, the erection usually ends, but this may take time.
[edit]Causes
The clitoris is the homologue of the penis in the female. The part visible on the outside varies in size from a few millimeters to one centimeter and is located hidden in the upper labial fold. Any type of motion can increase blood flow to this tiny organ and this results in excessive secretions which lubricate the vagina.[1] There are many ways to stimulate the clitoris.
[edit]Signs of clitoral stimulation

The main sign of clitoris stimulation is vaginal lubrication. Other signs may include nipple erection, and prolonged body relaxation.[citation needed]
[edit]Shape and size

An erect clitoris can take on a number of different shapes and angles, ranging from small and embedded, to large and protruding. Generally, the size of an erect clitoris is fixed throughout post-pubescent life.
[edit]Priapism

A clitoral erection that does not subside is a form of priapism called clitorism, a painful condition where the clitoris will experience recurring erections.
[edit]Neurovascular mechanism of clitoral erection

The clitoris consists of an external short head attached to a long body which is internally located. The body of the clitoris is surrounded by bulky erectile tissue on either side. This bulk contains muscles and is richly innervated with sensory nerves. While the penis is an external organ which is distended, the clitoris is small and is an internal structure. The major nerve which produces sensations to the clitoris is a branch of the pudendal nerve, also known as the dorsal nerve of the clitoris.[2]
[edit]See also

Erection
Sexual function
[edit]Notes

^ Clitoral erection and stimulation 2010-02-09
^ Sydney Morning Herald. "The clitoris: anatomy of a revolution" 2010-02-09.
[edit]References

Gharahbaghian, L. (1 November 2008). "Clitoral priapism with no known risk factors". The Western Journal of Emergency Medicine 9 (4): 235–237. ISSN 1936-900X. PMC 2672283. PMID 19561754. edit
Gragasin, S.; Michelakis, D.; Hogan, A.; Moudgil, R.; Hashimoto, K.; Wu, X.; Bonnet, S.; Haromy, A. et al. (Sep 2004). "The neurovascular mechanism of clitoral erection: nitric oxide and cGMP-stimulated activation of BKCa channels" (Free full text). The FASEB Journal 18 (12): 1382–1391. doi:10.1096/fj.04-1978com. ISSN 0892-6638. PMID 15333581. edit
Shen, W. U.; Urosevich, Z.; Clayton, D. O. (Jun 1999). "Sildenafil in the treatment of female sexual dysfunction induced by selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors" (Free full text). The Journal of reproductive medicine 44 (6): 535–542. ISSN 0024-7758. PMID 10394548. edit
Park, K. G.; Goldstein, I.; Andry, C.; Siroky, M. B.; Krane, R. J.; Azadzoi, K. M. (Mar 1997). "Vasculogenic female sexual dysfunction: the hemodynamic basis for vaginal engorgement insufficiency and clitoral erectile insufficiency". International Journal of Impotence Research 9 (1): 27–37. doi:10.1038/sj.ijir.3900258. ISSN 0955-9930. PMID 9138056. edit
Toesca, A. S.; Stolfi, V. M.; Cocchia, D. (1 June 1996). "Immunohistochemical study of the corpora cavernosa of the human clitoris". Journal of anatomy 188 ( Pt 3) (Pt 3): 513–520. ISSN 0021-8782. PMC 1167479. PMID 8763468. edit
Akkus, E. C.; Carrier, S.; Turzan, C.; Wang, T. N.; Lue, F. (Apr 1995). "Duplex ultrasonography after prostaglandin E1 injection of the clitoris in a case of hyperreactio luteinalis". The Journal of Urology 153 (4): 1237–1238. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(01)67566-9. ISSN 0022-5347. PMID 7869513. edit
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Sexual function
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sexual function is a model developed at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, Sweden, defining different aspects of the assessment of sexual dysfunction comprises the following components.[1]
Firstly, relevant aspects of sexual function are defined on the basis of a modified version of Masters and Johnson’s pioneer work.[2] The aspects of sexual function defined as being relevant to the assessment include sexual desire, erection, orgasm and ejaculation.
Secondly, guidelines for assessing sexual function are suggested and divided into four stages.
Stage 1 deals with the documentation of the defined aspects of sexual function. The main questions are:
Is the function intact? For example: Have there been any occurrences of erections or orgasms during a given period of time?
If the function is intact, what is the frequency and/or intensity of the function? For example: How often has the person had an orgasm or erections during the given period of time and how intense is the orgasmic pleasure and erection stiffness compared to youth or the best period in life. The suggested explanations for the absence or waning of functions at this stage are physiological and psychological.
Stage 2 deals with the assessment of the frequency of different sexual activities, such as intercourse, within a given time frame. The possible explanations for an absence or a decreased frequency of sexual activities may include physiological, psychological, social, religious and ethical reasons.
Stage 3 it is estimated if or to what extent waning sexual functions and/or activities cause distress.
Stage 4, the association between the distress due to waning sexual function and well-being and emotional isolation is assessed.
These guidelines were constructed to assess male sexual function[3] in relation with treatment for prostate cancer. However, the concept has been modified and adapted for females.[4]
[edit]See also

Sexual dysfunction
Orgastic potency
[edit]References

^ Helgason, Asgeir. Prostate Cancer Treatment and Quality of Life – a Three Level Epidemiological Approach.
^ Masters, William; Virginia E. Johnson. Human Sexual Response. Little, Brown & Co..
^ Helgason ÁR, Adolfsson J, Dickman P, Arver S, Fredrikson M, Göthberg M, Steineck G. Sexual desire, erection, orgasm and ejaculatory functions and their importance to elderly Swedish men: A population-based study. Age and Ageing. 1996:25:285-291.
^ Bergmark K, Avall-Lundkvist E, Dickman PW, Henningsohn L, Steineck G. Vaginal changes and sexuality in woman with a history of cervical cancer. N Engl J Med. 1999: 304 (18):1383-9.
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Dick cheese
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Dick cheese may refer to:
[edit]People

Richard Cheese, stage name of the American singer and comedian Mark Jonathan Davis
Cam Kd (David Hangya look-a-like), better known by his stage name, Dickcheese
[edit]In mammalian physiology

Descriptive term for smegma, a secretion of mammalian genitals
[edit]In musical culture

Richard Cheese and Lounge Against the Machine, a cover band and comedy act
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If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
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This page was last modified on 13 February 2013 at 21:05.
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[Jon.]

Human feces
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)
Human feces (or faeces; Latin: fæx), also known as stool,[1] is the waste product of the human digestive system including bacteria. It varies significantly in appearance, according to the state of the digestive system, diet and general health. Normally stool is semisolid, with a mucus coating. Small pieces of harder, less moist feces can sometimes be seen impacted on the distal (leading) end. This is a normal occurrence when a prior bowel movement is incomplete, and feces are returned from the rectum to the intestine, where water is absorbed. Meconium (sometimes erroneously spelled merconium) is a newborn baby's first feces.
Contents [hide]
1 Color variations of feces
2 Odor
3 Personal hygiene
4 Bristol stool scale
5 Fecal markers
6 Abnormalities
6.1 Stool analysis (stool sample)
6.2 Undigested food remnants
6.3 Diarrhea
7 Fertilizer
8 Fecal contamination
9 See also
10 References
[edit]Color variations of feces

Human fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on diet and health.
Brown
Human feces ordinarily has a light to dark brown coloration, which results from a combination of bile and bilirubin that is derived from dead red blood cells. Normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating.
Yellow
Yellowing of feces can be caused by an infection known as Giardiasis, which derives its name from Giardia, an anaerobic flagellated protozoan parasite that can cause severe and communicable yellow diarrhea. Another cause of yellowing is a condition known as Gilbert's Syndrome. This condition is characterized by jaundice and hyperbilirubinemia when too much bilirubin is present in the circulating blood.
Black or red
Feces can be black due to the presence of red blood cells that have been in the intestines long enough to be broken down by digestive enzymes. This is known as melena, and is typically due to bleeding in the upper digestive tract, such as from a bleeding peptic ulcer. The same color change can be observed after consuming foods that contain a substantial proportion of animal blood, such as black pudding or tiết canh. Black feces can also be caused by a number of medications, such as bismuth subsalicylate (the active ingredient in Pepto-Bismol), and dietary iron supplements, or foods such as beetroot, black liquorice, or blueberries.[2] Hematochezia is similarly the passage of feces that are bright red due to the presence of undigested blood, either from lower in the digestive tract, or from a more active source in the upper digestive tract. Alcoholism can also provoke abnormalities in the path of blood throughout the body, including the passing of red-black stool.
Blue
Prussian blue, used in the treatment of radiation, cesium, and thallium poisoning, can turn the feces blue. Substantial consumption of products containing blue food dye, such as blue curaçao or grape soda, can have the same effect.[3]
Silver
A tarnished-silver or aluminum paint-like feces color characteristically results when biliary obstruction of any type (white stool) combines with gastrointestinal bleeding from any source (black stool). It can also suggest a carcinoma of the ampulla of Vater, which will result in gastrointestinal bleeding and biliary obstruction, resulting in silver stool. [4]
Green
Feces can be green due to having large amounts of unprocessed bile in the digestive tract. This might be the result from eating liquorice candy. As it is typically made with anise oil rather than liquorice herb and is predominantly sugar, excessive sugar consumption or a sensitivity to anise oil may cause loose, green stools.[5]
[edit]Odor

Feces possess physiological odor, which can vary according to diet (especially the amount of meat protein e.g., methionine)[6][7][8][9][10] and health status. The odor of human feces is suggested to be made up from the following odorant volatiles:[7]
Methyl sulfides
methylmercaptan/methanethiol (MM)
dimethyl sulfide (DMS)
dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS)
dimethyl disulfide (DMDS)
Benzopyrrole volatiles
indole
skatole
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
(H2S) is the most common volatile sulfur compound in feces.[7] The odor of feces may be increased in association with various pathologies, including:[11]
Celiac disease
Crohn's disease
Ulcerative colitis.[12]
Chronic pancreatitis
Cystic fibrosis
Intestinal infection, e.g. Clostridium difficile infection.[13]
Malabsorption
Short bowel syndrome
Attempts to reduce the odor of feces (and flatus) are largely based on animal research carried out with industrial applications, such as reduced environmental impact of pig farming. See also: Flatulence#Management, odor. Many dietary modifications/supplements have been researched, including:
Activated charcoal.[14] (Note this study concluded activated charcoal at a dose of 0.52g four times a day did not appreciably influence the liberation of fecal gases).
Bismuth subsalicylate.[15]
Chloryphyllyn
Herbs such as rosemary
Yucca schidigera.[16]
Zinc acetate.[16]
[edit]Personal hygiene

Main article: Anal cleansing
Cultures employ a variety of personal cleansing practising after elimination.
In Western and East Asian societies, the use of toilet paper is widespread. Other paper products were also used before the advent of flush toilets.
Some European countries use a bidet for additional cleaning.
In South Asia and Southeast Asia, showers are provided for use in toilets.
In Islam, washing of the anus with water using the left hand is part of the prescribed ritual ablutions.
In India, the anus is also washed with water using the left hand.
In the United Kingdom, the Indian toilet was adapted as the "WC" (water closet) and widely deployed in England during the reign of Queen Victoria. London suffered numerous outbreaks of food poisoning resulting from workers handling food after using the toilet. Cleansing of the anus was an arbitrary practice left to personal choice and facilities available.
In Ancient Rome, a communal sponge was employed. It was rinsed in a bucket of salt water after use.
In Japan, flat sticks were used in ancient times, being replaced by toilet paper as the country became more Westernized. Toilets that include built-in bidets have now become widely popular in private homes; these can be very sophisticated appliances, allowing users to adjust the temperature, direction and force of water jets, and offering warm air to dry the anus and surrounding regions. The toilet flushes automatically when the buttocks leave the seat.
[edit]Bristol stool scale

Main article: Bristol stool scale

The Bristol stool scale is a medical aid designed to classify the form of human feces into seven categories. Sometimes referred to in the UK as the "Meyers Scale," it was developed by K.W.Heaton at the University of Bristol and was first published in the Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology in 1997.[17] The form of the stool depends on the time it spends in the colon.[18]
The seven types of stool are:
Separate hard lumps, like nuts (hard to pass)
Sausage-shaped but lumpy
Like a sausage but with cracks on the surface
Like a sausage or snake, smooth and soft
Soft blobs with clear-cut edges
Fluffy pieces with ragged edges, a mushy stool
Watery, no solid pieces. Entirely Liquid
Types 1 and 2 indicate constipation. Types 3 and 4 are optimal, especially the latter, as these are the easiest to pass. Types 5–7 are associated with increasing tendency to diarrhea or urgency.[18]
[edit]Fecal markers

The feces can be analyzed for various markers that are indicative of various diseases and conditions. For example, fecal calprotectin levels indicate an inflammatory process such as Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis and neoplasms (cancer).
Reference ranges for fecal markers
Marker Patient type Upper limit Unit
Calprotectin 2–9 years 166[19] µg/g of feces
10–59 years 51[19]
≥ 60 years 112[19]
Lactoferrin 2–9 years 29[19]
≥ 10 years 4.6[19]
Also, feces may be analyzed for any fecal occult blood, which is indicative of a gastrointestinal bleeding.
[edit]

 

[Jon.]

Abnormalities

[edit]Stool analysis (stool sample)
The main pathogens that are commonly looked for in feces include:
Bacteroides species
Salmonella and Shigella
Yersinia tends to be incubated at 30 °C (86 °F), which is cooler than usual
Campylobacter incubated at 42 °C (108 °F), in a special environment
Aeromonas
Candida if the person is immunosuppressed (e.g., undergoing cancer treatment)
E. coli O157 if blood is visible in the stool sample
Cryptosporidium
Entamoeba histolytica
Intestinal parasites and their ova (eggs) can sometimes be visible to the naked eye.
[edit]Undigested food remnants
Undigested objects such as seeds can pass through the human digestive system, and later germinate. One result of this is tomato plants growing where sewage sludge has been used as fertilizer.
[edit]Diarrhea
Main article: Diarrhea
Diarrhea is the condition of having three or more loose or liquid bowel movements per day.[20] This condition can be a symptom of injury, disease or foodborne illness and is usually accompanied by abdominal pain, and often nausea and vomiting. There are other conditions which involve some but not all of the symptoms of diarrhea, and so the formal medical definition of diarrhea involves defecation of more than 200 grams per day (though formal weighing of stools to determine a diagnosis is never actually carried out).
It occurs when insufficient fluid is absorbed by the colon. As part of the digestion process, or due to fluid intake, food is mixed with large amounts of water. Thus, digested food is essentially liquid prior to reaching the colon. The colon absorbs water, leaving the remaining material as a semisolid stool. If the colon is damaged or inflamed, however, absorption is inhibited, and watery stools result.
Diarrhea is most commonly caused by myriad viral infections but is also often the result of bacterial toxins and sometimes even infection. In sanitary living conditions and with ample food and water available, an otherwise healthy patient typically recovers from the common viral infections in a few days and at most a week. However, for ill or malnourished individuals diarrhea can lead to severe dehydration and can become life-threatening without treatment.
[edit]Fertilizer

Main articles: Humanure and Composting toilet
This section requires expansion. (September 2012)
[edit]Fecal contamination

A quick test for fecal contamination of water sources or soil is a check for the presence of E. coli bacteria performed with the help of MacConkey agar plates or Petri dishes. E. coli bacteria uniquely develop red colonies at temperature of approximately 43 °C (109 °F) overnight. Although most strains of E. coli are harmless, their presence is indicative of fecal contamination, and hence an increased possibility of the presence of more dangerous organisms.
Fecal contamination of water sources is highly prevalent worldwide, accounting for the majority of unsafe drinking water. In developing countries most sewage is discharged without treatment. Even in developed countries events of sanitary sewer overflow are not uncommon and regularly pollute the Seine River (France) and the River Thames (England), for example.
[edit]See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Human feces
Feces
Defecation
Scatology
Shit
[edit]References

^ Sometimes but not always stools in UK English; plural use not even mentioned in Oxford online dictionaries
^ Heller, JL (2009-11-01). "Bloody or tarry stools". National Institutes of Health. Retrieved 2009-11-30.
^ "Fact Sheet: Prussian Blue". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2006-05-10. Retrieved 2009-11-30.
^ http://cnx.org/content/m14979/latest/
^ http://www.livestrong.com/article/472989-can-licorice-cause-discolored-stools/
^ Hiele, M; Ghoos, Y; Rutgeerts, P; Vantrappen, G; Schoorens, D (1991 Jun). "Influence of nutritional substrates on the formation of volatiles by the fecal flora.". Gastroenterology 100 (6): 1597–602. PMID 2019366.
^ a b c Tangerman, A (2009 Oct 15). "Measurement and biological significance of the volatile sulfur compounds hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol and dimethyl sulfide in various biological matrices.". Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences 877 (28): 3366–77. PMID 19505855.
^ Chavez, C; Coufal, CD; Carey, JB; Lacey, RE; Beier, RC; Zahn, JA (2004 Jun). "The impact of supplemental dietary methionine sources on volatile compound concentrations in broiler excreta.". Poultry science 83 (6): 901–10. PMID 15206616.
^ Geypens, B; Claus, D; Evenepoel, P; Hiele, M; Maes, B; Peeters, M; Rutgeerts, P; Ghoos, Y (1997 Jul). "Influence of dietary protein supplements on the formation of bacterial metabolites in the colon.". Gut 41 (1): 70–6. PMID 9274475.
^ Otto, ER; Yokoyama, M; Hengemuehle, S; von Bermuth, RD; van Kempen, T; Trottier, NL (2003 Jul). "Ammonia, volatile fatty acids, phenolics, and odor offensiveness in manure from growing pigs fed diets reduced in protein concentration.". Journal of animal science 81 (7): 1754–63. PMID 12854812.
^ Dugdale, David C.. ""Stools - foul smelling" on Medline Plus". U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
^ Levine, J; Ellis, CJ; Furne, JK; Springfield, J; Levitt, MD (1998 Jan). "Fecal hydrogen sulfide production in ulcerative colitis.". The American journal of gastroenterology 93 (1): 83–7. PMID 9448181.
^ Bartlett, John G.; Gerding, Dale N. (15 January 2008). "Clinical Recognition and Diagnosis of Infection". Clinical Infectious Diseases 46 (s1): S12–S18. doi:10.1086/521863.
^ Suarez, FL; Furne, J; Springfield, J; Levitt, MD (1999 Jan). "Failure of activated charcoal to reduce the release of gases produced by the colonic flora.". The American journal of gastroenterology 94 (1): 208–12. PMID 9934757.
^ Suarez, FL; Furne, JK; Springfield, J; Levitt, MD (1998 May). "Bismuth subsalicylate markedly decreases hydrogen sulfide release in the human colon.". Gastroenterology 114 (5): 923–9. PMID 9558280.
^ a b Giffard, CJ; Collins, SB; Stoodley, NC; Butterwick, RF; Batt, RM (2001 Mar 15). "Administration of charcoal, Yucca schidigera, and zinc acetate to reduce malodorous flatulence in dogs.". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 218 (6): 892–6. PMID 11294313.
^ Lewis SJ, Heaton KW (1997). "Stool form scale as a useful guide to intestinal transit time". Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 32 (9): 920–4. doi:10.3109/00365529709011203. PMID 9299672.
^ a b "Constipation Management and Nurse Prescribing: The importance of developing a concordant approach" (PDF). Archived from the original on 2006-07-05. Retrieved 2006-11-06.
^ a b c d e Joshi, S.; Lewis, S. J.; Creanor, S.; Ayling, R. M. (2009). "Age-related faecal calprotectin, lactoferrin and tumour M2-PK concentrations in healthy volunteers". Annals of Clinical Biochemistry 47 (Pt 3): 259–263. doi:10.1258/acb.2009.009061. PMID 19740914. edit
^ "Diarrhoea". World Health Organization.
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[Jon.]

Shit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the word "shit". For the waste product, see feces. For the egestion of bodily wastes, see defecation.
"Scheiße" redirects here. For the Lady Gaga song, see Scheiße (song).


This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2009)

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Shit is an English word that is usually considered vulgar and profane in Modern English. As a noun it refers to fecal matter (excrement) and as a verb it means to defecate or defecate in; in the plural ("the shits") it means diarrhea. Shite is also a common variant in British English and Irish English.[1] As a slang term, it has many meanings, including: nonsense, foolishness, something of little value or quality, trivial and usually boastful or inaccurate talk, or a contemptible person. It may also be used as an expression of annoyance, surprise, or anger, and has other usages as well.
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Usage
2.1 Vague noun
2.2 Surprise
2.3 Trouble
2.4 Displeasure
2.5 Dominance
2.6 Positive attitude
2.7 Shortening of bullshit
2.8 Emphasis
2.9 The verb “to shit”
2.10 Backronyms
2.11 Shart
3 Usage in media
3.1 Television
3.1.1 United Kingdom
3.1.2 Canada
3.1.3 United States
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Etymology

The word is likely derived from Old English, having the nouns scite (dung, attested only in place names) and scitte (diarrhoea), and the verb scītan (to defecate, attested only in bescītan, to cover with excrement); eventually it morphed into Middle English schītte (excrement), schyt (diarrhoea) and shiten (to defecate), and it is virtually certain that it was used in some form by preliterate Germanic tribes at the time of the Roman Empire. The word may be further traced to Proto-Germanic *skit-, and ultimately to Proto-Indo-European *skheid- "cut, separate", the same root believed to have become the word shed. The word has several cognates in modern Germanic languages, such as German Scheiße, Dutch schijt, Swedish skit, Icelandic skítur, Norwegian skitt etc. Ancient Greek had 'skor' (gen. 'skatos' hence 'scato-'), from Proto-Indo-European *sker-, which is likely unrelated.[2]
Usage

The word shit (or sometimes shite in British and Irish English) is used by English speakers, but it is usually avoided in formal speech. Minced oath substitutes for the word shit in English include sugar and shoot.
In the word's literal sense, it has a rather small range of common usages. An unspecified or collective occurrence of feces is generally shit or some shit; a single deposit of feces is sometimes a shit or a piece of ----- and to defecate is to ----- to take a shit and a new variant to leave a shit. While it is common to speak of shit as existing in a pile, a load, a hunk and other quantities and configurations, such expressions flourish most strongly in the figurative. For practical purposes, when actual defecation and excreta are spoken of in English, it is either through creative euphemism or with a vague and fairly rigid literalism.
"Shit" can also be combined with other words to denote the type of feces one has. For instance, "snake shit" describes feces that are long and thin in shape, thus reminiscent of a snake's appearance.
Shit carries an encompassing variety of figurative meanings, explained in the following sections.
Piece of shit may also be used figuratively to describe a particularly loathsome individual.
Vague noun
Shit can be used as a generic mass noun similar to stuff; for instance, This show is funny shit or This test is hard ----- or That was stupid shit. These three usages (with funny, hard, and stupid or another synonym of stupid) are heard most commonly in the United States.
In Get your shit together! the word shit may refer to some set of personal belongings or tools, or to one's wits, composure, or attention to the task at hand. He doesn't have his shit together suggests he is failing rather broadly, with the onus laid to multiple personal shortcomings, rather than bad luck or outside forces.
To shoot the shit is to have a friendly but pointless conversation, as in "Come by my place some time and we'll shoot the shit."
Surprise
To shit oneself, or to shit bricks can be used to refer to surprise or fear, often in the future. The latter form can be commonly seen in a form of Internet meme which goes by the phrase when you see it, you will shit bricks, used in connection with an image of a busy scene with an often unnoticed laughing face or disturbing object which is hard to see until you study the picture.[citation needed]
The word can also be used to represent anger, as in Jim is totally going to flip his shit when he sees that we wrecked his marriage.[citation needed]
Trouble
Shit can be used to denote trouble, by saying one is in a lot of shit or deep shit. It's common for someone to refer to an unpleasant thing as hard shit (You got a speeding ticket? Man, that's some hard shit), but the phrase tough shit is used as an unsympathetic way of saying too bad to whoever is having problems (You got arrested? Tough ----- man!) or as a way of expressing to someone that they need to stop complaining about something and cope with it instead (Billy: I got arrested because of you! Tommy: Tough ----- dude, you knew you might get arrested when you chose to come with me.) Note that in this case, as in many cases with the term, tough shit is often said as a way of pointing out someone's fault in his/her own current problem.
When the shit hits the fan is usually used to refer to a specific time of confrontation or trouble, which requires decisive action. This is often used in reference to combat situations and the action scenes in movies, but can also be used for everyday instances that one might be apprehensive about. I don't want to be here when the shit hits the fan! indicates that the speaker is dreading this moment (which can be anything from an enemy attack to confronting an angry parent or friend). He's the one to turn to when the shit hits the fan is an indication that the person being talked about is dependable and will not run from trouble or abandon their allies in tough situations. The concept of this phrase is simple enough, as the actual substance striking the rotating blades of a fan would cause a messy and unpleasant situation (much like being in the presence of a manure spreader). Whether or not this has actually happened, or if the concept is simply feasible enough for most people to imagine the result without needing it to be demonstrated, is unknown. Another example might be the saying shit rolls downhill, a metaphor suggesting that trouble for a manager may be transferred to the subordinates. There are a number of anecdotes and jokes about such situations, as the imagery of these situations is considered to be funny. This is generally tied-in with the concept that disgusting and messy substances spilled onto someone else are humorous.
Displeasure
Shit can comfortably stand in for the terms bad and anything in many instances (Dinner was good, but the movie was shit. You're all mad at me, but I didn't do shit!). A comparison can also be used, as in Those pants look like ----- or This stuff tastes like shit. Many usages are idiomatic. I'm shit out of luck usually refers to someone who is at the end of their wits or who has no remaining viable options. That little shit shot me in the ass, suggests a mischievous or contemptuous person. Euphemisms such as crap are not used in this context.
The term piece of shit is generally used to classify a product or service as being sufficiently below the writer's understanding of generally accepted quality standards to be of negligible and perhaps even negative value.The term piece of shit has greater precision than shit or shitty in that piece of shit identifies the low quality of a specific component or output of a process without applying a derogatory slant to the entire process. For example, if one said "The inner city youth orchestra has been a remarkably successful initiative in that it has kept young people off the streets after school and exposed them to culture and discipline, thereby improving their self esteem and future prospects. The fact that the orchestra's recent rendition of Tchaikovsky's Manfred Symphony in B minor was pretty much a piece of shit should not in any way detract from this." The substitution of shit or shitty for pretty much a piece of shit would imply irony and would therefore undermine the strength of the statement.
The term "(blank) don't/doesn't give a shit" can be used when one does not care about something, or has a passive attitude toward said thing, as it denotes indifference. In context, one can say: "You're offended? Well, I don't give a shit!"

 

[Jon.]

Dominance
Shit can also be used to establish superiority over another being. The most common phrase is eat shit! expressing hatred of the addressee. Some other personal word may be added such as eat my shit implying truly personal connotations. As an aside, the above is actually a contraction of the phrase eat shit and die!.[citation needed] It is often said without commas as a curse; they command the other party to perform exactly those actions in that order. However, the term was originally Eat, ----- and Die naming the three most basic things humans have to do, and it is common among soldiers.[citation needed]
The phrase You ain't ----- expresses an air of intimidation over the addressee, expressing that they mean nothing or are worthless.
Positive attitude
In slang, prefixing the article the to shit gives it a completely opposite definition, meaning the best, as in Altered Beast is the ----- or The Oregon Trail is the shit. Again, other slang words of the same meaning, crap for example, are not used in such locutions.
Shortening of bullshit
The expression no shit? (a contraction of no bullshit?) is used in response to a statement that is extraordinary or hard to believe. Alternatively the maker of the hard-to-believe statement may add no shit to reinforce the sincerity or truthfulness of their statement, particularly in response to someone expressing disbelief at their statement. No shit is also used sarcastically in response to a statement of the obvious, as in no ----- Sherlock.
In this form the word can also be used in phrases such as don't give me that shit or you're full of shit. The term full of shit is often used as an exclamation to charge someone who is believed to be prone to dishonesty, exaggeration or is thought to be "phoney" with an accusation. For example:
"Oh, I'm sorry I forgot to invite you to the party, it was a complete accident... But you really didn't miss anything anyway."
"You're full of shit! You had dozens of opportunities to invite me. If you have a problem with me, why not say it!"
The word bullshit also denotes false or insincere discourse. (Horseshit is roughly equivalent, while chickenshit means cowardly, batshit indicates a person is crazy, and going apeshit indicates a person is entering a state of high excitement or unbridled rage.) Are you shitting me?! is a question sometimes given in response to an incredible assertion. An answer that reasserts the veracity of the claim is, I shit you not.
Emphasis
Perhaps the only constant connotation that shit reliably carries is that its referent holds some degree of emotional intensity for the speaker. Whether offense is taken at hearing the word varies greatly according to listener and situation, and is related to age and social class: elderly speakers and those of (or aspiring to) higher socioeconomic strata tend to use it more privately and selectively than younger and more blue-collar speakers.
Like the word ----- shit is often used to add emphasis more than to add meaning, for example, shit! I was so shit-scared of that shithead that I shit-talked him into dropping out of the karate match! The term to shit-talk connotes bragging or exaggeration (whereas to talk shit primarily means to gossip [about someone in a damaging way] or to talk in a boastful way about things which are erroneous in nature), but in such constructions as the above, the word shit often functions as an interjection.
Unlike the word ----- shit is not used emphatically with -ing or as an infix. For example; I lost the shitting karate match would be replaced with ...the fucking karate match. Similarly, while in-fucking-credible is generally acceptable, in-shitting-credible is not.
The verb “to shit”
The preterite and past participle of shit are attested as shat, ----- or shitted, depending on dialect and, sometimes, the rhythm of the sentence. In the prologue of The Canterbury Tales, shitten is used as the past participle; however this form is very rare in modern English. In American English shit as a past participle is often correct, while shat is generally acceptable and shitted is uncommon and missing from the Random House and American Heritage dictionaries.[3][4]
Backronyms
The backronym form "S.H.I.T." often figures into jokes, like Special High Intensity Training (a well-known joke used in job applications), Special Hot Interdiction Team (a mockery on SWAT), Super Hackers Invitational Tournament, and any college name that begins with an S-H (like Sam Houston Institute of Technology or South Harmon Institute of Technology in the 2006 film Accepted or Store High In Transit in the 2006 film Kenny). South Hudson Institute of Technology has sometimes been used to describe the United States Military Academy at West Point.[5] The Simpsons' Apu was a graduate student at Springfield Heights Institute of Technology.
In polite company, sometimes the backronym Sugar Honey in Tea or Sugar Honey Iced Tea is used.
Shart
Shart, as a portmanteau of the words shit and fart, became popular after its usage in the 2004 film Along Came Polly.[citation needed] It refers to an undesirable situation where one intends to pass gas, but expels diarrhea instead.
Usage in media

Television
Recently the word has become increasingly acceptable on American cable television and satellite radio, which are not subject to FCC regulation. In other English-speaking countries, such as Canada, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Australia and New Zealand the word is allowed to be used in broadcast television by the regulative councils of each area, as long as it is used in late hours when young people are not expected to be watching. It has appeared on ABC News' 20/20.
United Kingdom
It is believed that the first person to say "shit" on British TV was John Cleese of the Monty Python comedy troupe in the late 1960s, as he, himself, says in his eulogy[6] for Graham Chapman.
Canada
In Canada, it is one of the words considered by the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council to be "coarse, offensive language intended for adults", acceptable for broadcast only after 9:00pm.[7]
The Canadian Showcase television show Trailer Park Boys frequently uses the term "shit". Trailer park supervisor James "Jim" Lahey employs many metaphors with the negative slang "shit" bizarrely worked in. For example, in one episode, Mr. Lahey likens Ricky's growing ignorance to that of a "shit tsunami", while in another episode, Mr. Lahey tells Bubbles that the "shit hawks are swooping in low" due to his deplorable behavior and company.
The term "shit" is also used in the titles of the episodes themselves. Some of which include "The Winds of -----"[8] "A Shit Leopard Can't Change Its Spots,"[9] and "Never Cry Shitwolf".
United States
"Shit" was one of the original "Seven Words You Can Never Say On TV", a comedy routine by American Comedian George Carlin. In the United States, although the use of the word is censored on broadcast network television (while its synonym crap is not usually subject to censorship), the FCC permitted some exceptions. The 14 October 1999 episode of Chicago Hope is believed to be the first show (excluding documentaries) on U.S. network television to contain the word shit in uncensored form. The word also is used in a later ER episode "On the Beach" by Dr. Mark Greene, experiencing the final stages of a deadly brain tumor. Although the episode was originally aired uncensored, the "shit" utterance has since been edited out in syndicated reruns.
An episode of South Park, "It Hits the Fan", originally aired on 20 June 2001, was a parody of the hype over the Chicago Hope episode. "Shit" is used 162 times, and a counter in the corner of the screen tallies the repetitions. South Park airs on American cable networks, outside the regulatory jurisdiction of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), where censorship of vulgar dialogue is at the discretion of the cable operators.[10]
American terrestrial radio stations must abide by FCC guidelines on obscenity to avoid punitive fines, unlike satellite radio. These guidelines do not define exactly what constitutes obscenity, but it has been interpreted by some commissioners as including any form of words like shit and ----- for whatever use.
Despite this, the word has been featured in popular songs that have appeared on broadcast radio in cases where the usage of the word is not audibly clear to the casual listener, or on live television. In the song "Man in the Box" by Alice in Chains, the line "Buried in my shit" was played unedited over most rock radio stations. The 1973 Pink Floyd song "Money" from the album Dark Side of the Moon contains the line "Don't give me that do goody good bull-----" and has frequently been broadcast unedited on US radio. The 1980 hit album Hi Infidelity by REO Speedwagon contained the song "Tough Guys" which had the line "she thinks they're full of -----" which was played on broadcast radio. On 3 December 1994, Green Day performed "Geek Stink Breath", on Saturday Night Live, shit was not edited from tape delay live broadcast. The band did not appear on the show again until 9 April 2005.
Some notable instances of censorship of the word from

 

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